For three hundred years, the seat of the General Councils had remained still and as the world progressed into a more technologically advanced society, calling many bishops to join in one location for a General Council had become a much easier prospect. With the system of railways which now extended throughout Europe and the Atlantic passage being shortened to that of a few days, the meeting of the bishops would be much simpler now.
Pope Pius IX Calls a General Council Under the Bull Aeterni Patris
On June 29, 1868, Pope Pius IX released his papal bull, Aeterni Patris, summoning all the bishops to a General Council. The purpose of this council, according to his bull, was to “restate the faith in certain matters where it had been attacked or misunderstood; to review the whole matter of clerical life and its needs; to provide new safeguards for Christian marriage and the Christian education of youth; and . . . to promote peace and prosperity in the national life everywhere.” The Church in Crisis: A History of the General Councils, 325 – 1870 – By Philip Hughes
But what the council is remembered for and will always be remembered for is the final declaration determining papal infallibility in matters regarding to the faith or moralsThere was a great deal of dissent on this issue, many bishops disagreed either with the concept itself or the timing of the proclamation. Obviously, the Protestant Reformation had changed the entire landscape of the church and such a proclamation could make matters worse. But it went ahead as planned and the doctrine of Pastor Aeternus was passed despite a lot of hesitation and concerns.
Other Issues Resolved in the First General Council of the Vatican
Much was done in this General Council, so it is only possible to summarize the doctrines which were formally defined.
God was defined as the Creator of all things and it was defined as an error to deny one true God. Revelation was defined as something which can be known by the natural light of human reason but can also be taught by extraordinary divine intervention. Faith was defined in a manner stating that God may juxtapose understanding upon someone within the context of their own human reason. And it was stated that it would be an error to believe that within the context of divine revelation there remain no mysteries and that all things can be understood by simple human reason. In essence, faith is essential and divine revelation needful for the mysteries of God to be known in an individual soul.
The General Council of Trent, 1545-63 A.D.
The Second General Council of the Vatican, 1963-65 A.D.
Sources: The Church in Crisis: A History of the General Councils, 325 – 1870 – By Philip Hughes, The General Councils: A History of the Twenty-One Church Councils from Nicaea to Vatican II – By Christopher M. Bellito, The Documents of Vatican II – By Walter M. Abbott, S.J. and the Very Reverend Monsignor Joseph Gallagher, A Short History of Christian Doctrine: From the First Century to the Present – By Bernard Lohse, The Reform of the Liturgy – Annibale Bugnini, www.catholicdigitalstudio.com/councils.htm
The Fourth General Council of the Lateran
Pope Innocent III, the Pope to reign over the Fourth General Council of the Lateran, was known for many things, the council only one of them. After following a series of five aged popes who died quickly in succession between 1179 and 1198, Pope Innocent III was only 37 years old and would reign for 18 years. Those 18 years would be considered among the highest peaks of papal power. But there is another reason Innocent III will never be forgotten.
The Historical Time of Pope Innocent III
Two great saints emerged during Pope Innocent III reign, Dominic and St. Francis, both of whom would start two of the greatest orders that still reign supreme today – the Dominicans and the Franciscans. The story of Pope Innocent III’s meeting with St. Francis is legendary, because he recognized St. Francis only after having a dream.
Declarations about the Fourth General Council of the Lateran
Innocent III declared that the two primary jobs which lay before him in his pontificate were the recovery of the Holy Lane – the crusades continued in great force – and the reform of Catholic Life. This would be the foundation of the 70 canons agreed to during this General Council.
Innocent the III is considered on par with Alexander the III, who came before him in the formation of canon law and the systems which eventually evolved from them.
Manichaeanisn and Albigensianism, Heresies of the Day
Manichaean cosmology believed in two supreme beings which ruled the earth, one evil and one good. All things regarding the material world, in their view, were evil. Therefore, they embraced a very ascetic life where they tried to avoid contact with matter. This manifested in food, property and sex. Marriage was enslavement. They even had rather odd rituals involving starving themselves to death to make them worthy of the kingdom of heaven.
Albigensians were not that far removed from the Manichaeans, and neither were very far removed from Gnosticism and what became Cathar belief. Their cosmologies were complex, but the primary reason for their popularity was the perception of the Catholic Clergy as having lost its way, corruption, etc.
Innocent III fought hard to change these perceptions and was successful during the Fourth General Council of the Lateran, the 12th General Council.
Seventy Canons Introduced
Among the 70 canons introduced included a new confession faith, canons involving the dealing of heretics, the dignity of patriarchal sees, yearly provincial councils, inquests, on the appointment of priests and schoolmasters, a prohibition against new religious orders, clerical incontinence, gluttony, drunkenness or lack of decorum. Clerics were forbidden to participate in soldiering, the introduction of locking up the chrism and Eucharist in churches, the introduction of yearly confession and communion, the seal of confession wherein the penitent could be assured of absolute secrecy was made canon law, numerous new procedures introduced to insure the proper training of the priesthood, and among others, rules were established in the handling and passing on of the relics of the saints.
It was thorough and much was achieved, and it is considered the first council to really solidify the church, the canons, the teachings, and the future of the Catholic Faith.
The Third General Council of the Lateran, 1179 A.D.
The First General Council of Lyons, 1245 A.D.
Sources: The Church in Crisis: A History of the General Councils, 325 – 1870 – By Philip Hughes, The General Councils: A History of the Twenty-One Church Councils from Nicaea to Vatican II – By Christopher M. Bellito, The Documents of Vatican II – By Walter M. Abbott, S.J. and the Very Reverend Monsignor Joseph Gallagher, A Short History of Christian Doctrine: From the First Century to the Present – By Bernard Lohse, The Reform of the Liturgy – Annibale Bugnini, www.catholicdigitalstudio.com/councils.htm